Discuss how one or more groups of people are represented through the media

Theories

• Giroux (1997) argues that in media representations youth becomes ab 'empty category'. This is because media representations of young people are constructed by adults. Because of this they reflect adults concerns, anxieties and needs. As a result of this media representations of young people do not necessarily reflect the reality of youth identity. when applying Giroux to media texts you need to think about who constructed the representation, who it is aimed at, and does the representation reflect adult anxieties or serve the purposes of adult society (e.g. by reinforcing hegemonic values)

• Acland (1995) argue that media representations of delinquent youths actually reinforce hegemony. they do this by constructing an idea of 'normal' adult and youth behaviour, and contrasting it with deviant youth behaviour which is shown to be unacceptable. 

• Acland also claims that media representations of young people out of control allows that state to have more control of them (e.g. media reports about delinquent youths led to ASBO's). This is something Acland calls the 'ideology of protection' - the idea that young people need constant surveillance and monitoring. This happens because youth is the time when young people learn about social roles and values, and allows the state to make sure they conform to hegemonic values

• Hebdige (1979) studied British youth subcultures in the late 1970s. His work is more focused on the reality of youth culture, than Giroux or Acland who are concerned with media representations of youth. Hebdige argues that youth subcultures are a way for young people to express their opposition to society, and to challenge hegemony. This is primarily expressed through style. In this context you may consider how the working class youths' behaviour is a response to their position in society (e.g. the class envy of the characters in 'Eden Lake' who steal the signifiers of middle class wealth such ass the 4x4 and the Ray Bans).

• Hebdige also argues that representations of young eople are quite limited showing them as either fun or trouble. Again this suggests media representations of young people do not really relate to reality.

• Gramsci developed the concept of cultural hegemony. This is the idea that one social class (usually the middle class) is able to dominate a society by making their way of life and values appear normal, natural, and common sense. As a result other social classes accept these values as the normal way of life. Gramsci does see hegemony as a site of constant struggle - societies are constantly debating what is and isn't acceptable. You could relate this to the more positive representations of working class youth in 'Fish Tank' and 'Misfits' as representations which challenge the perception of working class as thugs.

• Cohen (1972) studied the media response to the mods and rockers riots in the 1960s. He argued that from time to time 'folk devils' emerge in a society which reflect the anxieties of society at the time (e.g. mods and rockers reflect social anxiety about the emergence of youth culture, rock and roll, etc) A moral panic occurs when the media reports on these 'folk devils' in a sensationalised way which leads to intervention by politicians, and the police. The effect of a moral panic is to reassert hegemony by allowing a society to make clear what values it does not accept. The representation of working class youths suggest that they have become a contemporary 'folk devil', perhaps tapping into economic anxieties, concern about a benefits culture, and long term unemployment.

• Althusser argues that one of the ways in which the state maintains control is through ideological state apparatus. This includes the media, education, religion, family. Ideological state apparatus are a range of different groups who transmit dominant ideology to the people, again maintaining hegemony. You could consider the extent to which the media representations we have looked at are reinforcing dominant values.

• Gerbner (1986) studied the effect of television on people's perception of crime. He found that people who watched a lot of television tended to overestimate the levels of crime. He called this 'mean world syndrome'. Because news reports, TV dramas, films, contain lots of representations of crime over time this influenced people's perception of the world. This is called 'cultivation theory'. you could apply this to media representations of young people. The large numbers of representations of young people as delinquents could, over time, influence how they are perceived by society.

• Greg Philo - argues that contemporary 'hoodie cinema' reflects middle class anxiety about the threat to their dominance posed by the working class.

• Cohen - deviancy amplification theory - media hype phenomenon - a moral panic meaning that a lot of people started to believe this representations which they saw in the media. this view was viewed in a negative way, one event that stands out was the London riots in 2011

• Moral panic sometimes leads to more media coverage of this 

• a group of people who are seen as a threat to society

• Gerbners cultivation theory - primary preposition of cultivation theory states that the more people are linked to the media, the more they begin to believe it

• Acland - social order is maintained by views held by majority of the public - negative views which are sometimes false, allow the state to have the power (hegemony - order of authority)

• Todorov - equilibrium, dis equilibrium

• Anne Gould - b

• Giroux - giroux argues that in media representations

• Media has the power to create stereotypes 

• David Gauntlett - identity is now consciously constructed, and the media provides some of the tools to help us construct our identities. the media contains a huge number of messages about identity and acceptable life styles - at the same time the public have their own diverse set of feelings. The media and media consumers are engaged in a dialogue in which neither overpowers the others

• Fiske (1982) - 'denotation is hwat is filmed, connotation is how its filmed'

• Saussure (1983) - Audience can look at a media text from a syntactic point of view, just describing what they see, or from a representational or symbolic point of view where they attribute meaning to what they see.

• Barthes (1967) - an audiences' understanding of media texts come from their understanding and knowledge of frequently told myths or stories. He argues that the organisation of signs encodes particular messages and ideologies

• Chandler (2005) - says that semiotics is important because it helps us not take 'reality' for granted as something that can exist without human interpretation

• Stuart Hall - argued that meaning is not fixed by the producer, and the audience is not passive, gave us different readings, the preferred reading is where the audience reads it the way that you wanted them to

• David Buckingham - a focus on identity requires up to pay closer attention to the ways in which media and technologies are used in everyday life and their consequences for social groups

• Steve Neale - 'Genres are instances of repetition and difference' (1980, 45)

• 'Difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre' (1980)

• Tzvetan Todorov - 'Any instances of a genre will be necessarily different' (1985, 60)

• Lacey - 'Repertoire is elements' that work together to suggest genre and that these are a useful                                              framework to use for analysis'

• Gledhill - 'There are no rigid rules of inclusion and exclusion' (1985)

• 'Genre… are not discrete systems, consisting of a fixed number of listable items' (1985)

• Chandler - 'It is difficult to make clear cut distinctions between one genre and another; genres overlap, and there are 'mixed genres' such as comedy thrillers' (2000)

• Burton - 'each text is given genre shares particular key elements to make up the generic formula, these include; Protagonists, Stock Characters, Plots and Stock Situations, Icons, Background and Décor Themes'

• Rick Altman - 'there are two ways to look at genre, the semantic approach and the syntactic approach. The sematnic is casing that here are certain signifiers that suggest genre, such as the with conventions of characters, location,  props, shooting style, music and other signifiers. The syntactic approach is about the realties between these elements and also narrative structure'

• Baudrillade - hyperreality and mediation

• Henry Jenkins - participatorial and spectatorial

• Stan Cohen - moral panics (everybody has got involved in a smaller situation), deviance amplification (one deviant act triggers more deviant acts due to other people feeling that because one person is able to do it, they are also able to do so),  folk devils (certain groups of people can be dangerous and damaging towards the rest of the people)

• Gerbner - mean world syndrome/cultivation theory (people that watch a lot of TV over estimate the amount of crime in the real world, so by consuming media, people will over estimate how mean the world is)

• David Gauntlett - 'Identities are not 'given' but are constructed and negotiated'

• David Buckingham - 'A focus on identity requires us to pay close attention to the diverse ways in which media and technologies are uses in everyday life, and their consequences for both individuals and for social groups'

• Gramsky - Society is run by the ruling elite (very small group of people) to make sure they keep their position. Therefore the media is run by a very small group of people who wish to maintain their status and position. Hegemony (Gramsky's theory)

• Steve Anderson - 'younger people are becoming a lot more empowered because of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and blogging' - power is transferring away from older people in charge of producing media, to the audience itself (through social media).

Exemplar

Exam Preparation

Media and Collective Identity 
How do the contemporary media represent:
-Nations, Regions and ethnic/social/collective groups of people in different ways?

How does contemporary representation compare to previous time periods?

What are the social implications of different media representations of groups of people?

To what extent is human identity increasingly 'mediated/?

Critical Perspectives in Media 
Analyse the representation of and/or the collective identity of one or more groups of people
- National cinema, television representations, magazines and …. gender, representations of youth and youth culture, post 9-11 representations of Islam, absence/ presence of people with disability in two medias. 

Theoretical Approcahes to Media Representations of Youth 
Essay Guidelines : 

Utilise : Explanation/ analysis/argument (16-20 marks) 
Show examples of collective identity, analyse the example and show how it relates to media theory relating to representation and collective identity

Explain the effects of media representations on individuals/ or society as a whole

(must use historical (5 years old or greater) and contemporary texts (less than 5 years old))

Use of Examples (16-20 marks) 
Be very clear in the examples that you use e.g. 

"Ck-One" versus Calvin Klein 1994 advertisement of the CK-One shows gender ambiguity 

Examples of theories, text and industry knowledge are clearly connected together in the answer. History and the future are integrated into the discussion with conviction. 

Use of Terminology (8-10 marks) 
You should use contemporary media theory and the command of the appropriate conceptual and theoretical language is excellent

What is your view on the male Body Image to what extent do you think that the representation of male body image is changing.

• Write a 500 word essay on this using visual references in support of your views

• Use  information gained from the viewing of

• Include examples a range of texts contemporary (within the last 5 years) and older texts.

Reggie Yates' Extreme UK to help support your arguments and other sources of magazines.. GQ magazine, Men’s Health, etc.

Include at least two theories that you think applies in you analysis

Gender Representation

This photo shows gender representations because the women appears very shy and reserved however the male seems more overpowering and as though he is trying to seduce her.

Disability Representation

Disability is - a physical or metal condition that limits a persons movement, senses or activities 

Branston and Stafford (2001) - soaps rely on archetypal characters and stereotypes - ensure ready accessibility because stories have universal appeal about families and communities.

• Stereotypes depend on shared cultural knowledge - some part of the stereotype must ring true. 

• Stereotypes are always about power: those power stereotype those with less power (Dyer, 1979)

The problem of disability representation - 

• Disabled people and their organisations have been drawing attention to the connection between disabled imagery, the media and discrimination since at least the 1960's 
• Paul Hunt (1966) expressed the views of many when he wrote 'We are tired of being statistics, cases, wonderfully courageous examples to the world, pitiable objects to stimulate funding'

Examples of disabilities within media :

A Touch of Frost  - Billy
Eastenders - Stacey Slater 
Glee - Arty 
The Undateables 

Pathetic and Pitiable 

Disabled people are mediated to being unable to complete simple tasks for themselves and needing help with everyday life. This is negative as not all disabled people need help and often feel uncomfortable when people treat them differently (a burden) and this is the issue with the media stereotyping all disabled people as being unable. An example of this could be Stephen Hawkins who is completely paralysed however one of the smartest people to live and he has still been able to make a name for himself from his work and I expect he is rather wealthy and does not depend on charity.

• Presents disabled people as dependent on charity
• Presents disables as unable to look after themselves/ a burden 
• Mediation purpose is to engender sympathy/pity (can be patronising)

Disabled person as an object of violence - 

Charles Darwin and 'the survival of the fittest' 

• Is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of human population 

• Eugenicists reiterated ancient traditional fears that disabled people were a serious threat to British and European society. They set out to safeguard humanities future by preventing the reproduction of 'defectives' by sterilisation and segregation. 

Does British society undervalue disabled people, in what way?

• Disabled children are more likely to be abandoned by their parents than their able-bodied peers
• They have less chance of being adopted
• They are more prone to physical and sexual abuse 

Effects of these representations - 

• Disabled people are helpless
• Pitiable
• Unable to function without protection 
• These stories reinforce, albeit implicitly, the Eugenic conviction that the 'natural' solution to the problems associated with impairment is a violent one 

The Disabled Person as Sinister and Evil 

"Using facial disfigurement to provoke revulsion and promote the stereotype that disfigurement makes a person morally abnormal. Its lazy film-making and, particularly within the Bond franchise itself"

• Disabled people are more likely to be introverted and sensitive than violent and aggressive
• They are more likely to avoid rather than attack others

• In the Bible there are over forty instances in which 'the cripple' is connected to sin and sinners
• Folk Tales
• Representations of difference in society are often used to confer evil/ suspicion from Medieval times in this way you can use Cohen 'Folk Devils' 

Clown from American Horror Story season 4 had a facial disfigurement and turns into mass murderer

The Disabled Person as Atmosphere or Curio 

Disables people are sometimes included in the story lines of films and TV dramas to enhance a certain atmosphere, usually one of menace, mystery or deprivation, or to add character to the visual impact of the production. This dilutes the humanity of disables people by reducing them to objects of curiosity. 

Affects of these representations - 

• Such exhibitions represent little more than disability voyeurism because they are encourage lewd fascination with impairment
• The non-disabled publics morbid preoccupation with physical difference is also kept alive in horror and scions fiction films. These depictions nurture and perpetuate the unfounded belief that appearance is inextricably linked to a persons moral character and value 

The Disabled Person as Super Cripple -

• Disabled Person is assigned super human almost magical abilities
• Blind people are portrayed as visionaries with a sixth sense or extremely sensitive hearing 
• News stories about disabled peoples achievements - either extra-ordinary or managing to fit into a 'normal life' - both on television and in the press. On television they account for over a quarter of all news stories about disabled people. 

Effects of these representations - 

• Misguided assumptions about disabled peoples abilities can result in them being denied essential services
• Focusing on a disabled individuals achievements such as imagery encourages the view that disabled people have to overcompensate to be accepted into the community
• They negative psychological implications for the majority struggling to cope in a largely hostile environment are clear

The Disabled Person as an Object of Ridicule - 

• Laughing at disability is not new, disabled people have been a source of amusement for non-disabled people for centuries 

• Historical records include Jane Fool a female court jester
• Contemporary examples where disabled people are the object of ridicule are numerous

Affects of these representations - 

• Being mocked publicly is only acceptable if the negative images which ensue can be offset against positive ones, or if those being ridiculed are able to defend themselves should they chose to 
• At present there are virtually no positive images of disabled people in the media 
• Disabled people do not have the resources or a legal framework within which to fight this type of discrimination 

Other negative representations - 

• The disabled person as their own worst and only enemy 
• The disabled person as a burden 
• The disabled person as sexually abnormal 

Lifes too short

Own worst enemy - he won't allow people to help him, feels that he should be able to do these things for himself 

Sexually abnormal - in clip, cashier asks if 'one size fits all' condoms will fit a dwarf 

Explain what is meant by 'Collective Identity' and the role of media in its constrction

Collective Identity can be defined as an 'individuals sense of belonging to a group who share a set of traditions and values'. This suggests that there are many ways that people can fit into a collective identity, whether it is by age, gender, ethnicity, sexuality and many other groups. However, it can be said that any consideration of a 'collective identity' must take into account the role that representation plays within the construction of a media text.

Media plays a very important role on the representation of collective identity, this is because media is part of every day life and within the media, many things are mediated to give the impression that is intended. For example, within the media, women are often sexualised or stereotyped. Laura Mulvey's theory of the 'male gaze' is very prominent throughout the media, whether it is women wearing very little clothing on magazine covers or in films when the camera tilts up to show the audience the womens body. This is a form of the media sexualising women however it is done so to attract the male audience.  David Buckinghams theory on the mediation of media text is also very relevant to this when he states that "media do not just offer us a transparent 'window on the world' but a mediated version of the world. They don't just represent reality, they re-represent it". Buckingham is describing that even 'real media' such as the news is not always exactly what is happening, everything is mediated so the audience see what the producers want them to see. The news itself is very sexualised due to the majority of news casters being male

Theorists

Giroux (1997) argues that in media representations youth becomes ab 'empty category'. This is because media representations of young people are constructed by adults. Because of this they reflect adults concerns, anxieties and needs. As a result of this media representations of young people do not necessarily reflect the reality of youth identity. when applying Giroux to media texts you need to think about who constructed the representation, who it is aimed at, and does the representation reflect adult anxieties or serve the purposes of adult society (e.g. by reinforcing hegemonic values)

Acland (1995) argue that media representations of delinquent youths actually reinforce hegemony. they do this by constructing an idea of 'normal' adult and youth behaviour, and contrasting it with deviant youth behaviour which is shown to be unacceptable. 

Acland also claims that media representations of young people out of control allows that state to have more control of them (e.g. media reports about delinquent youths led to ASBO's). This is something Acland calls the 'ideology of protection' - the idea that young people need constant surveillance and monitoring. This happens because youth is the time when young people learn about social roles and values, and allows the state to make sure they conform to hegemonic values

Hebdige (1979) studied British youth subcultures in the late 1970s. His work is more focused on the reality of youth culture, than Giroux or Acland who are concerned with media representations of youth. Hebdige argues that youth subcultures are a way for young people to express their opposition to society, and to challenge hegemony. This is primarily expressed through style. In this context you may consider how the working class youths' behaviour is a response to their position in society (e.g. the class envy of the characters in 'Eden Lake' who steal the signifiers of middle class wealth such ass the 4x4 and the Ray Bans).

Hebdige also argues that representations of young eople are quite limited showing them as either fun or trouble. Again this suggests media representations of young people do not really relate to reality.

Gramsci developed the concept of cultural hegemony. This is the idea that one social class (usually the middle class) is able to dominate a society by making their way of life and values appear normal, natural, and common sense. As a result other social classes accept these values as the normal way of life. Gramsci does see hegemony as a site of constant struggle - societies are constantly debating what is and isn't acceptable. You could relate this to the more positive representations of working class youth in 'Fish Tank' and 'Misfits' as representations which challenge the perception of working class as thugs.

Cohen (1972) studied the media response to the mods and rockers riots in the 1960s. He argued that from time to time 'folk devils' emerge in a society which reflect the anxieties of society at the time (e.g. mods and rockers reflect social anxiety about the emergence of youth culture, rock and roll, etc) A moral panic occurs when the media reports on these 'folk devils' in a sensationalised way which leads to intervention by politicians, and the police. The effect of a moral panic is to reassert hegemony by allowing a society to make clear what values it does not accept. The representation of working class youths suggest that they have become a contemporary 'folk devil', perhaps tapping into economic anxieties, concern about a benefits culture, and long term unemployment.

Althusser argues that one of the ways in which the state maintains control is through ideological state apparatus. This includes the media, education, religion, family. Ideological state apparatus are a range of different groups who transmit dominant ideology to the people, again maintaining hegemony. You could consider the extent to which the media representations we have looked at are reinforcing dominant values.

Gerbner (1986) studied the effect of television on people's perception of crime. He found that people who watched a lot of television tended to overestimate the levels of crime. He called this 'mean world syndrome'. Because news reports, TV dramas, films, contain lots of representations of crime over time this influenced people's perception of the world. This is called 'cultivation theory'. you could apply this to media representations of young people. The large numbers of representations of young people as delinquents could, over time, influence how they are perceived by society.

Greg Philo - argues that contemporary 'hoodie cinema' reflects middle class anxiety about the threat to their dominance posed by the working class.

media representations of youth reflects societies concerns and fears

Cohen - deviancy amplification theory - media hype phenomenon - a moral panic meaning that a lot of people started to believe this representations which they saw in the media. this view was viewed in a negative way, one event that stands out was the London riots in 2011
Moral panic sometimes leads to more media coverage of this
a group of people who are seen as a threat to society

Gerbners cultivation theory - primary preposition of cultivation theory states that the more people are linked to the media, the more they begin to believe it

Acland - social order is maintained by views held by majority of the public - negative views which are sometimes false, allow the state to have the power (hegemony - order of authority)

Todorov - equilibrium, dis equilibrium

Anne Gould - b

Giroux - giroux argues that in media representations
Media has the power to create stereotypes 

Spectatorial audience believe what they see